The use of poisons for nefarious purposes had greatly increased, and by the Middle Ages was arguably developing into a cult. Poisons and their effects were being studied predominantly to create a more virulent effect by the 14th and 15th centuries; Italian alchemists were realising that combinations of known poisons could create a more potent effect. Pierre le Bon of Ferrera described how a mixture of aconite, copper and venom of toads would have a more desired effect towards the victim. Perhaps the most notorious of Italian "alchemists" of this period were the Borgias, an originally Spanish family, who migrated to Italy around the year 1455. Originally a soldier, Rodrigo rose in social status to eventually achieve the title of Pope Alexander VI. Using his power of authority, Rodrigo positioned his five children, incidentally illegitimately borne by his longstanding mistress, Vanozza de Cattanei, into upstanding titles. Perhaps the most notorious of his progeny was Cesare, described as a "degenerate of the worst possible type" (Thompson, 1931) Arguably he was more ruthless than his father was.
During these times, there was very little value attached to life, so people in distinguished positions lived in constant apprehension. Poison was becoming the foremost weapon and its relative inconspicuous nature meant dinner parties were feared, especially if the Borgias had sent the invitation!
There have been many stories circulated concerning the Borgias. Whether fabricated or not, many collaborate to illustrate Cesare to be an extremely dangerous man. Many rumours speculate as to whether there was a Borgia recipe. Apollinaire describes this recipe:
"La Cantarella. That which the Borgias utilised in conjunction with arsenic without knowing it, was phosphorus, a secret which had been divulged to the Borgias by a Spanish monk, who also knew the antidote for it, as well as an antidote for arsenic; one sees, therefore that they were well armed."
Other stories concerning La Cantarella make reference to arsenic and mixtures incorporating it. This may reflect the typical trend of alchemy at that time, the interest in concocting more virulent poisons from already potent substances.
Contradicting views also surround the eventual death of Pope Alexander VI. Some believe it was a misfortune brought about by erroneous actions of servants during a dinner party. In one account, Apollinaire describes how the Pope was poisoned by wine, which he himself instigated to be contaminated, originally to murder Cardinal de Corneto. Sanuto has written a differing account. Supposedly the Pope ate the wrong box of sweetmeats which had been originally contaminated by the Cardinal, for the Pope. Apparently 10000 ducats was exchanged between the cook and Cesare as the Borgias were anxious they were to be beaten by their own game. Ironically, there was a confusion in the kitchens and the Pope was indeed poisoned.
Perhaps not surprisingly, the Pope’s body was not lamented over. However, it had to be laid out for several days, in which time it became quickly putrefied. This greatly aroused suspicion, suggesting poisoning. In an attempt to counteract this, the body was only viewed at night by candlelight. Even in the dim dim light, the Pope still looked horrific.
Similarly the death of Cesare was not greatly mourned over. One person however, who did miss his presence was his younger sister Lucrezia. Although described by a cousin of Federico Gonzaga as "one, who appears to have been universally beloved not only for the habitual piety of her life, but for her unbounded charity and kindness of heart," Lucrezia was accused of many crimes, including that of poisoning. However, due to a significant lack of historical evidence, she may have been wrongly accused of many of Cesare’s horrific crimes.
By the 17th century, poisoning had become such an art that there were schools in both Venice and Rome. Commencing in the 16th century, a body of alchemists notoriously known as the Council of Ten was formed. They planned, voted and carried out the eradication of any chosen person for a sum of money. In 1543, John of Ragusa confronted the council, declaring that with his collection of poisons, could remove any person from society. He also added, "The farther the journey, the more eminent the man, the more it is necessary to reward the toil and hardship undertaken, and the heavier must be the payment."
By 1589, even a publication had been made on the art of poisoning. Written by Giovanni Battista Porta, "Neopoliani Magioe Naturalis" describes various methods of poisoning particularly drugging wine, as this at the time was perhaps the most popular. Described as "a very strong poison", Porta gives a formula for "Veninum Lupinum." This was a concoction of aconite, taxus baccata, caustic lime, arsenic, bitter almonds and powdered glass. Mixed with honey, it was made into pills the size of walnuts.
Perhaps the most notorious poisoner of the 17th century was a woman named Toffana. She too had a supposed recipe. Named "Aqua Toffana" the solution was sold in phials, which bore the representation of a saint, usually Saint Nicholas of Bari. She managed to sell it under the pretence that it helped a woman’s complexion. Due to the active ingredient being arsenic, this could have been plausible. However, for those whom Toffana had a "rapport" with, the real purpose of her phials was made known. It has been estimated that Toffana aided the murder of over 600 people, usually husbands.
Throughout time woman have taken a particular interest in poison for criminal purposes, and the extent of this can be seen in an account from Rome in 1659. A society of women was formed in secret, meeting regularly at the house of a reputed witch, Hieronyma Spara. Usually married, the members of this society were issued with the poison they required and instructions for its use. Ultimately they were caught and abolished, but undoubtedly there were many other similar organisations that carried on throughout this era.